1. Training for work and survival (connected to Kliebard's social efficiency - realism)
- Goals: prepare students for future economic success, "play the game of life"
- Roots: Contemporary American culture such as "success", "good work", and vision of economic and technological trends
- Learners: Manually-minded, usually of working-class or minority origin
- Teachers: Coaches and exemplars of skills
- Content: Employability skills, work maturity skills
- Context: The marketplace and industry
- Planning: External control, work-oriented
- Evaluation: Income improving effectiveness, test score comparisons
- Dilemmas: Professional goal vs. standardized test; vocational vs. academic education; lack of business involvement
- Critique: Fail to prepare the young for work; ignorance of work-life issues; class-based, limiting character; little vision of individual transformation
- Samples: strengthening the economy, career-centered ed., in the 1840s Horace Mann appealed to employers to support public schools on the basis that education makes better workers; 1980s, community colleges
- Goals: Engage student with classic knowledge and develop understanding of the best way to live one's life
- Roots: Historical Euro-American aspirations for grace, order, well-being, and justice
- Learners: as athletes
- Teachers: as elders and masters
- Content: Repository of wisdom featuring thickness, adaptability, endurance, creativity, artistry, pedagogic value
- Context: a community of scholars
- Planning: teacher centered, thematic integrated
- Evaluation: No critical examination (the content is good because it is good)
- Dilemmas: Teachers' knowledge; controversies over the content of the curriculum; adverse public perception
- Critique: Intangible outcomes; conservative nature, resisting innovation; deficient as a mono-cultural model
- Samples: Tradition, renaissance, liberal arts; The McGuffey Readers (forging cultural identity - a truly American education); the Culture Wars against the dominant approach (the tradition of white, male, Western European thought)
3. Developing self and spirit (Connected to Kliebard's child-centered - pragmatism)
- Goals: nurture individual's potential, creativity, spirituality, and self-knowledge thus to proceed freely and naturally to greater knowledge of themselves and of their world
- Roots: ideal of 'child-centered' or 'progressive education'; Dewey: schooling is not preparation for life but life itself (Plato, Dewey, Noddings, Greene, Miller)
- Learners: those need love, safety, freedom, and guidance to be able to learn
- Teachers: gardener, facilitator, authentic co-learner, role model, resources, nurturer, personal and intellectual support system, objective guide, coach, mentor
- Content: psychological, emotional, spiritual, and social growth in academics, athletics, arts and aesthetics
- Context: the physical-social environment in the classroom
- Planning: teachers and students negotiate; under constant modification and revision so as to continue the inquiry to greater length and depths
- Evaluation: non-standardized; subjective; problem-solving based
- Dilemmas: teachers are obliged to be artists who have both commitment and skills
- Critique: stereotypes of denying the importance of subject matter, rejecting of all authority, and making learners self-indulgent
- Samples: educating the whole child, personal growth
- Goals: encourage learners to utilize their experiences, intellectual strengths, and interactions with others to bridge the formal knowledge with the continually evolving individual mind
- Roots: Constructivist belief that learners actively create and restructure knowledge, and that knowledge doesn't exist outside them as some objective, universal entity
- Learners: continually involved in recognizing their world, actively imposing order and meaning on their experiences and 'creating' the world in which they live
- Teachers: learning facilitators and co-developers of understanding with the student
- Content: the learning approach is as important as the topics; less is more; integrated curriculum
- Context: the focus is the learner rather than the subject matter; a "thinking about thinking" environment
- Planning: teachers shape the curricular process; student negotiate with the teacher about the criteria; teacher-centered + student-centered instruction
- Evaluation: based on student performances or artifacts generated as a result of substantial effort
- Dilemmas: teachers need to reconceptualize view of instruction and to be infinitely skilled; "chaotic" and "correctness"
- Critique: little more than thematic, project-based learning; incompatibility between standards; merely a set of guidelines for instruction; disconnected with larger issues of curriculum
- Samples: questioning the unknown - creating restructuring knowledge; continual evolution of creating unique individual understanding
- Goals: understand and experience the process of democratic decision making
- Roots: sociopolitical emphasis upon the group process of deliberating the curriculum (Dewey's theoretical formulation of democracy and education)
- Learners: 'citizens' of the classroom community exercising explicit determination over the substance and processes of learning for their benefit and that of their peers at the same time
- Teachers: catalyst for collaboration; negotiating learning procedures with learners
- Content: civic participation; definition of rules and expectations; peer mediation of conflict and adjudication of disputes; creation of a classroom constitution
- Context: using multi-dimensional, interdisciplinary and context-conscious learning to address problems and an audience beyond the school
- Planning: a constant state of formation (to be constantly monitored and calibrated to avoid imbalances and neglect). Students = key players
- Evaluation: focused on learning and the learner while broad enough to encompass other matters (student setting goals, unit and quarterly reviews, the collaborative assessment of students' achievements)
- Dilemmas: constraints of official authority; planning and evaluation vs. study activities (time balancing); democratic teachers vs. traditionally narrow-minded and hierarchical institutions
- Critique: hard to approach small-group democracy; undervalue authority; democratic culture vs. social reality (inequality or injustice)
- Samples: community is the center; democracy is 'of the people, by the people, and for the people'; 'empowerment'
- Goals: give each child the uncompromised opportunity to develop into a self-determining and rationally acting person; to empower the individual so as to transform themselves and society for better; to build a society that makes possible growth and development for everyone
- Roots; British oppression; social ferment; the Great depression; Neo-Marxism; Postmodernism; the feminist movement; critical pedagogy (Giroux, Apple, Greene, Slattery, Doll, Freire)
- Learners: individuals with unique personal histories that are dynamic, rich with the respective influences of family life, peer relationships, and popular culture; critical co-investigators in dialogue with the teacher
- Teachers: Transformative intellectuals, engaged critics, partisans (not doctrinaire), provocateurs, co-investigators
- Content: the organized and systematic depiction to learners of the things about which they want to know more
- Context: honors supportive relationships, previous experiences, and multiple cultural and linguistic realities, a forum for critical analysis of the world
- Planning: teachers invite students to generate ideas, to negotiate subject matter, and to find resources outside the school settings
- Evaluation: qualitatively evaluating the ongoing work of students to provide feedback about communicative skills, content knowledge, and critical insights about the content
- Dilemmas: disturbing the social order; learners' resistance of doing critical analysis; many dependent factors; the circumscribed worldview of teachers themselves; a discontinuity between theory and guidelines for practice
- Critique: complexity and negativity
- Samples: equal rights, social justice, transforming, empower individual so they may transform themselves and society for better
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